Movement Analysis of an Archery Athlete: Improving Neuromuscular Control

Introduction

Archery, also known as bow and arrow, is a multi-cultural tradition with an extensive history spanning over 60.000 years (Ok, Choi and Jeong, 2010; Whitman, 2017). In the earliest days, archery was used to launch projectiles (arrows) with an elastic device (bow)—to hunt. This invention was pivotal in hunting history (Lombard and Philipson, 2010). More recently, archery has been renowned as a competitive sport, with Olympic status from the Paris summer games of 1900. After this first event, archery events were only held thrice between 1904 and 1972 but have been an enduring event in all Olympic summer games since then.    The extensive history and the Olympic status attract historians and movement scientists. As performance coaches, the last group’s reports are valuable. In particular, the biomechanical and neurophysiological analyses conducted by the movement scientist provide essential insights into the differentiating variables of amateur and elite archers (Spratford and Campbell, 2017; Simsek et al., 2018). Accordingly, a narrative review of distinguishing factors is presented in Table 1.

Amateur	Elite	Reference
Neurophysiological aspects of the shoulder region a
Low activation of the m. deltoideus posterior (≤ 30% of MVC).	Significant activation of the m. deltoideus posterior (≥ 80% of MVC).	Simsek et al. (2018)
Low activation of the m. trapezius ascendens (≤ 50% of MVC).	Significant activation of the m. trapezius ascendens (≥ 90% of MVC).	Simsek et al. (2018)
Neurophysiological aspects of the trunk region
High activation of the internal- and external oblique muscles and low levels of activation of the m. transversus abdominis.	Low activation of the internal- and external oblique muscles and high levels of activation of the m. transversus abdominis.	Matsunaga, Imai and Kaneoka (2017).
Mental strategies/psychological skills training
Not widely utilised and seems less effective during the initial learning stages. The literature indicates an effect size of 0.393 (95% CI 0.323-0.463) during the first twelve weeks of archery participation.	Widely embraced and seemed more practical. The literature indicates an effect size of 0.637 (95% CI 0.426-0.847) when performing three archery sessions per week.	Robazza and Bortoli (1998); Kim, Kang and Park (2021).
Indicators of muscular fatigue
Doubling blood lactate levels following twelve bowing sets coherent with ~10% reduction of handgrip strength.	Relative stable blood lactate level (< 25% fluctuation) during twelve bowing sets and unaffected handgrip strength.	Borges et al. (2020).
MVC = maximal voluntary contraction. a Electromyographical data of the drawing arm.

The athlete

The archery athlete has three years of experience with archery and a long-lasting record of sports participation, including athletics and resistance training. Additional information on the athlete is offered in Table 2. 

Characteristics
Age	Stature	Body mass	Predicted body fat	Resistance training experience	Archery experience
y	m	kg	%	y	y
37	1.80	78.5	22.5	21	3
Workload
Archery training and strength and conditioning
Archery: 3 sessions per week of 90 min, including warm-up and cool-down. a Strength and Conditioning: 3 sessions per week of 60 min, including warm-up and cool-down. b Athletics: 1 session per week of 90 min, including warm-up and cool-down. b
Non-training-related physical activities
Five or six weekly work days as a personal trainer at FitPro Institute B.V. Daily walks with the dog and/or kids. Combined activity spanning some 9.000 steps per day.
Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire
Question
1	2	3	4	5	6	7
No	No	No	No	No	No	No
General Medical History and (Sports) Injuries
1. Achilles tendon rupture (left side, 2017)   2. IT-band syndrome (right side, 2008)             3. Shoulder impingement (left side, 2021)	1. The injury occurred after a long rest period during a sprint, which implies that insufficient conditioning (i.e., preparation) might play a role.    2. The injury occurred during a heavy training mesocycle, with excellent periodisation and recovery practices. Accordingly, there is no causal relationship, but accumulated fatigue, biomechanics and/or ecological factors (i.e., surface) might play a role.   3. The injury occurred during bench pressing. It was a direct, snapping sensation with pain afterwards, which resolved itself after two weeks.
y = years, m = meters, kg = kilograms. a Training sessions with periodisation practice. b Training sessions without periodisation practice.

Screening rationale

A rationale for the selected movements is provided under the forthcoming headings: posture observation, sensorimotor shoulder abduction, and oblique slings.

Posture observation

Postural observation is an umbrella term that can imply the observation and analysis of posture during static or dynamic activities (Boa et al., 2009). The reliability of the observations varies, as shown by heterogeneity in interrater reliability coefficients (Boa et al., 2009; Silva, Punt and Johnson, 2010). Therefore, practising the observation with a standardised procedure is essential for optimal results. Independent of the manner, the intention is to explore the alignment of all sub-units (i.e., joints). A blemish in the joint’s alignment denotes a possible restriction in joint range of motion and can further disturb physiological loading and cause unergonomic movement (O’Sullivan et al., 2002; Czaprowski et al., 2008; Barrett et al., 2016). In contrast, these discoveries can also be considered valuable for sports performance. For instance, gymnasts and baseball pitchers often have hyperextension in their lumbar spines, which is possibly beneficial to their sport’s biomechanical requirements (Sands et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2018). Therefore, ecological variables, including sports participation, influence the interpretation and extrapolation of results. Moreover, archery—a unilateral sport for most—is a catalyser for the functional orientation of muscle and fascia. For instance, the dominant limb is extra-stimulated and, therefore, more likely to develop muscle mass. In line with this hypothesis, Schmitt and colleagues (2021) analysed unilaterally and regularly bilaterally trained archers. Their observation reported only visual asymmetries in the unilaterally trained group. The authors concluded that the asymmetries are probably exceeding performance-enhancing degrees. In summary, although ecological variables are significant, the amount of asymmetry in a unilateral archer should be within (unquantifiable) boundaries.

Sensorimotor shoulder abduction

The sensorimotor shoulder abduction assessment is a complementary movement to the previous evaluation. During the abduction of the glenohumeral joint in a frontal plane of motion, the effect of possible static asymmetry is examined during a dynamic movement. However, the coach must be experienced with movement-based assessments to make a reliable judgement, as no scientific papers are published. It is about training the coaching eye. A negative assessment is characterised by a perfect amount of muscular recruitment with the right timing. For the observer, this is indicated through an absence of shoulder elevation during the first 60° of shoulder abduction and normal upward rotation and elevation of the scapula (Page et al., 2010). In contrast, the elevation of the shoulder before 60° of abduction, scapular winging, and trunk flexion are all signs of a positive test (Page et al., 2010). These faults can have pathogenic consequences (Molenaar et al., 2016). Moreover, a positive test is especially of concern to the coach. An uneconomic movement pattern is frequently provoked by excessive activation (hypertonicity) of the m. trapezius pars descendens (Page et al., 2010). This can elicit a chain reaction throughout the shoulder region. For instance, the rotational movement of the scapula will be affected, and the m. trapezius pars ascendens weakens (Lee et al., 2020). These influences likely lower the athlete’s performance capacity during archery (Simsek et al., 2018). In summary, shoulder abduction is an essential movement within the broader testing battery, and especially a negative test is of significance to the performance coach.

Oblique slings

The oblique slings are myofascial links within the body (Santana, McGill and Brown, 2015). Accordingly, the test assesses this kinetic chain’s (implicit) function. In congruence with the previous assessment, the coach must be experienced with movement-based assessments to make a reliable judgement, as no scientific papers are published. Even so, the author proposes a standardised procedure to increase the test reliability (presented in the appendix). Performance coaches have recognised the implication of training the spinal (core) musculature because it might contribute to sports performance and injury risk (Kidler, Press and Sciascia, 2006; Zemkova, 2022). Unfortunately, there is heterogeneity in the definition of what muscles contribute to the core muscles. To prevent confusion, the author utilises the definition proposed by Donatelli (2007). In contrast, the core muscles’ primary function is less debated. Most researchers conform with the description of Kibler, Press and Sciascia (2006), which states that the core is a segment within a myofascial connection between the lower and upper extremities, allowing safe and efficient energy transfer between the elements. Besides this kinetic description, the network of muscle, fascia and ligaments has a protective function for the internal organs and influences breathing (Kim and Lee, 2013). For archers, the amount of postural sway—the movement around someone’s centre of mass—is a performance-determining variable (Zawi and Mohamad, 2013). Postural sway is mediated by a complex series of co-contractions, including inhibition and excitation between the deep and superficial muscles orchestrated by the central nervous system (Reeves, 2007). Accordingly, preceding evidence exists that core training reduces postural sway and improves performance in archers (Pathmanathan et al., 2019). The aetiology of the performance boost is clarified by a possible hypertrophic response of the transversus abdominis (Teyhnen et al., 2008), enhanced synergistic muscle function (Faries and Greenwood, 2007), and improvements in breathing mechanics (Kim and Lee, 2013). Because all previously noted variables likely also influence the assessment of the posterior and anterior oblique slings, a credible oblique sling assessment might be a rudiment of archery excellence—even without a direct causal relationship. However, the author recognises that further research is necessary to investigate this possible direct or indirect relationship. In summary, the oblique slings assessment provides a unique insight into the athlete’s capacity to perform complex neuromuscular body control. Although there is no causal relationship, it might be an essential variable in archery excellence.

Results and interpretation

Outcomes of the assessments are presented under the forthcoming headings. The text highlights one or two remarkable discoveries; the tables express additional findings.

Posture observation

The postural observation highlighted two considerations: a pelvic drop and scapular winging (Figure 1). Although different joints are affected, they can nevertheless be interrelated. Joseph, Purunscan and Sitlertpisan (2017) published a myofascial-biomechanical hypothesis. They suggest that pelvic positioning and stability have a causal and reciprocal effect on the kinematics of the glenohumeral joint. It is reasonable that the pelvic drop disturbs the pelvic myofascial sling, circling the transversus abdominis, multifidus, diaphragm and pelvic muscles (Page et al., 2010). Consequently, the mechanical load on the pelvic area might be repositioned to the muscles higher in the posterior oblique sling, disrupting the neuromuscular control of the glenohumeral joint and scapula (Joseph, Purunscan and Sitlertpisan, 2017). This hypothesis explains the positive sensorimotor abduction test and inferior rigidity of the right-side posterior oblique sling. In summary, two findings are discussed from a myofascial-biomechanical perspective; other findings are elucidated in Table 3.

Observation	Noticed	Possible effect(s)	Possible cause(s)
Anterior	Right knee in a valgus position.	Increased (knee) injury risk when presented during dynamic activities (Tamura et al., 2017).	Pelvic position and a pronated foot position.
Anterior	Shoulder misaligned (right shoulder lower).	Asymmetrical movement during dynamic activities, such as presented during the sensorimotor shoulder abduction assessment.	The left pelvic drop elicits a reaction of the contralateral m. quadratus lumborum, pulling the right side down and in.
Lateral	Protracted right shoulder.	Scapular winging and dysfunction, such as presented during the sensorimotor shoulder abduction assessment.	Weakness of the m. trapezius pars ascendence, m. serratus anterior and the m. rhomboid(s) (Martin and Fish, 2008).
Lateral	Anterior pelvic tilt.	Disruption in force transmission between extremities, synergistic dominance in the myofascial chain, and reciprocal inhibition.	Lower Cross Syndrome: inhibited and hypertonic musculature (Page et al. 2010).
Lateral	Forward head posture.	Increased likelihood of developing an Upper Cross Syndrome (Page et al., 2010).	Ergonomic factors, such as faulty posture during computer and phone use (Kang et al., 2012).

Sensorimotor shoulder abduction

The author noticed two particularities: (1) left shoulder dominance, and (2) hypertonicity of the right m. trapezius pars descendens (Figure 2). Firstly, the disrupted right-side scapular function (Table 4) might generate a dominance of the left shoulder. The asymmetry can translate into an unbalanced force production during bench pressing and correlate to the athlete’s shoulder injury (Table 2). However, since the movement’s force vectors are different and (sports-)injuries are multifactorial, the author cannot determine if a causal relationship exists. Secondly, the right-shoulder elevation and noticeable muscle bulk of the m. trapezius pars descendens is probably related to scapular dysfunction (Lee et al., 2020). The reciprocal inhibition phenomenon suggests that when an agonist activates, the antagonist must facilitate. Therefore, the m. trapezius pars ascendence weakens because of the hypertonicity of the m. trapezius pars descendens (Lee et al., 2020). This is known to cause scapular winging (Martin and Fish, 2008).

Noticed	Possible effect(s)	Possible cause(s)
Right scapular dysfunction.	Dominance of the m. trapezius pars descendense.	Weakness of the m. trapezius pars ascendence, m. serratus anterior and the m. rhomboid(s) (Martin and Fish, 2008).

Oblique slings

During the oblique slings assessment, only one noteworthy aspect was discovered by the examiner and the athlete—namely, a difference between the left and right posterior oblique slings. The inferior performance of the right oblique sling is no coincidence; the body’s alignment symbolises the diminished capacity to transmit force around the posterior oblique sling. Because the aetiological factors are previously elucidated, no further argument is presented. Notwithstanding, the myofascial junction of the pelvis and glenohumeral joint is illustrated in Figure 3.      

Four-week training programme

The four-week intervention is integrated into the strength and conditioning (S&C) and archery sessions. During the first and third S&C sessions, the emphasis is on restoring neuromuscular balance with explicit strengthening and stretching exercises (Page et al. 2010). However, exclusively improving the bio-motor quality of a single muscle (e.g., stretch tolerance and strength) does not translate into enhanced synergistic muscle function. Therefore, the second routine contains movements demanding high levels of intermuscular coordination. These sensorimotor and integrated movements facilitate enhanced muscular synergy and seem more effective in improving posture (Bosch, 2016; Ludwig, Frohlich and Schmitt, 2016). Moreover, because the athlete does not have an S&C coach, the routines are developed in Microsoft Excel (Figure 4) and include monitoring practice (Figure 5). By utilising a more systematic and quantitative approach, the author expects the athlete to be more cognizant of the training process. Lastly, a short exercise routine is executed before and during the archery sessions. This includes abdominal (breathing) exercises and bilateral archery training (Table 6). Performing these exercises during this period assists in (temporarily) restoring the pelvic myofascial sling (Selkow, Eck and Rivas, 2017; Rahmini et al., 2019) and improves the athletes’ mental state during archery training (Boyadzhieva and Kayhan, 2021).

From a meso-perspective, the athlete is instructed to progressively expand the physiological stimulus via an increased intensity or volume (Figure 6). However, recognising that the athlete is not a professional and has many other responsibilities, such as a physically demanding job, recovery must be centralised throughout the mesocycle. Consequently, to prevent accumulative fatigue, the fourth week of the mesocycle is a recovery stage, which retains a reduced training volume but maintains the same level of intensity. The usefulness of this step-loading model is reduced fatigue and raised preparedness during the fifth training week through the delayed adaptation phenomenon (Turner, 2011).

Training programme rationale

Exercise	Rationale	Reference
Day I & III
Self-myofascial release, e.g., foam rolling	Inducing a form of self-induced massage, which, albeit heterogeneity in empirical findings, looks useful in increasing flexibility (ES 0.34, 95% CI {0.13-0.55}).	Wiewelhove et al. (2020).
Supine-lying on grid y-raises	Stretching the m. pectoral minor to reduce the protracted shoulder position and subsequently the scapular dysfunction.	Camargo et al. (2015).
Lateral neck flexions	Dynamically stretching the hypertonic m. trapezius pars descendance, which elicits a facilitative effect on the m. trapezius pars ascendence. Hence, the exercise order.	Kendall et al. (2005).
Swiss ball-prone dumbbell raises	The rounded, kyphotic posture on the Swiss ball increases the activation of the m. trapezius pars ascendence and transversus. These are the athletes’ weak muscles.	Lee et al. (2016).
Standing wall slides with miniband around the wrist – Ulnar side to the wall	Strengthening the m. serratus anterior, which likely influences the athletes’ scapular winging and dysfunction.	Escalante, Ashworth and Kolber (2020).
Front-foot elevated deep split-squats	Inducing the autogenic inhibition phenomenon elicits a facilitative effect on the gluteal muscles. Hence, the exercise order.	Siddiqui, Akhter and Baig (2022).
Side-lying miniband clam shell progression – Three different foot positions	Strengthening the external hip rotator muscles, which, especially on the right side, are weak (hip drop).	Page et al. (2010).
Plyo-box step-ups with dumbbells	Strengthening the gluteal muscles, which, especially on the right side, are weak (hip drop).	Simenz et al. (2012).
Chest-supported dumbbell seal rows – retract scapulae	The horizontal force factor combined with retraction of the scapulae increases m. rhomboid activation—to improve posture and scapular function.	Lehman et al. (2004).
Stretching in the cool-down	Explicitly focused on stretching (over-)active musculature.	Kendall et al. (2005); Page et al. (2010).
Day II
Self-myofascial release, e.g., foam rolling	Inducing a form of self-induced massage, which, albeit heterogeneity in empirical findings, looks useful in increasing flexibility (ES 0.34, 95% CI {0.13-0.55}).	Wiewelhove et al. (2020).
Supine-lying pelvic retroversion	Combining sensorimotor training with strength training seems more beneficial than strength training alone in reducing anterior pelvic tilt.	Ludwig, Frohlich and Schmitt (2016).
Standing postural corrections	Combining sensorimotor training with strength training seems more beneficial than strength training alone in reducing anterior pelvic tilt.	Ludwig, Frohlich and Schmitt (2016).
McGill curl-ups	Assist in correcting the anterior pelvic tilt and, subsequently, the kinetic energy transfer across the extremities.	Page et al. (2010).
Single-leg RDL stance with contra-arm horizontal-pull (Keiser-FT)a	Restoring the function of the posterior oblique sling in an integrated manner.	Santana, McGill and Brown (2015).
Split-stance with single-arm elastic band horizontal press	Strengthening the anterior oblique sling to maintain muscular balance between the slings.	Santana, McGill and Brown (2015).
Stretching in the cool-down	Explicitly focused on stretching (over-)active musculature.	Kendall et al. (2005); Page et al. (2010).
a Keiser-FT = Keiser Functional Trainer (Keiser Corporation, Fresno, CA, USA).

Exercise	Rationale	Reference
Archery sessions
Abdominal hollowing (10 repetitions of 10s) with pressure biofeedback unit (Chattanooga Group Inc., Hixson, TN, USA)	Improves the stabilising function of the trunk through activation of the m. transversus abdominis. For optimal results, the pressure reduction is 4 to 6 mmHg.	Page et al. (2010); Selkow, Eck and Rivas (2017).
Dynamic neuromuscular stabilisation breathing (protocol from Rahmini and colleagues, 2019).	Activating the intrinsic spinal stabilisers in different rudimentary movement patterns to improve their stabilising function during times of respiratory demands.	Hodges, Inger and Gandevia (2001); Frank, Kobesova and Kolar (2013); Rahmini et al. (2019).
Bilateral shooting (± 5-10% of all shots)	Reduce non-functional asymmetries, which might partially be elicited by a cross-education response and a reduced training volume of the dominant side. Also, this mitigates overuse injuries—a common problem in archers.	Grover and Sinha (2017); Andrushko et al. (2018); Schmitt et al. (2018).

Summary

This assignment incorporated the movement analysis of an archery athlete, an interpretation of the results, and a four-week mesocycle. From this moment onwards, the results of the intervention should be quantified using statistical methods so that the author can make a reliable judgement on its effectiveness. Only then is the scientific cycle completed, and can the author bring his coaching to a higher level.

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